1 min read
Every source paper in the wiki, in one table. Click a column heading to sort, or type in the filter to narrow the list (it searches every column). Sorting by N or Kind is a quick way to see where the evidence is thin.
Kind is read from each study’s design notes by keyword: anything not clearly a review or a theory paper is listed as Empirical. Hover a design to see it in full.
112 studies
| A theory of cortical responses | 2005 | Theory or narrative review | Theoretical / computational (free-energy formulation of perceptual inference and learning… | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal… | |
| A Whole-Body Sensory-Motor Gradient is Revealed in the Medial Wall of the Parietal Lobe | 2019 | 16 | Empirical | fMRI (phase-encoded/periodic body-movement mapping + event-related GLM; separate resting-… | The Journal of Neuroscience |
| Abnormal body perception and neural activity in the insula in depression: An fMRI study of the depressed 'material me' | 2010 | 34 | Empirical | event-related fMRI (3T); heartbeat-counting (interoception) vs tone-counting (exterocepti… | The World Journal of Biological Psychia… |
| Abnormal network connectivity in frontotemporal dementia: Evidence for prefrontal isolation | 2012 | 32 | Empirical | Resting-state fMRI, cross-sectional case-control: 16 frontotemporal dementia patients (8… | Cortex |
| Active interoceptive inference and the emotional brain | 2016 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/review (predictive-coding and free-energy formalism) | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal… | |
| Aging bodies, aging emotions: Interoceptive differences in emotion representations and self-reports across adulthood | 2021 | 341 | Empirical | Two cross-sectional, correlational online (MTurk) studies across the adult age-span (18–7… | Emotion |
| An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample | 1980 | 100 | Empirical | One-year naturalistic study of coping with everyday stress in 100 community-residing adul… | Journal of Health and Social Behavior |
| An interoceptive illusion of effort induced by false heart-rate feedback | 2019 | 18 | Empirical | Within-subjects false-cardiac-feedback experiment; cycle-ergometry with acoustic heart-ra… | Proceedings of the National Academy of… |
| Are LeDoux's survival circuits basic emotions under a different name? | 2018 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical commentary (philosophy of science; no new data). Themed issue on Survival cir… | Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences | |
| Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference | 2007 | 36 | Empirical | fMRI, cross-sectional (pre-training waitlist novices vs post-MBSR trained), 2x2 group x s… | Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosci… |
| Attention, in and Out: Scalp-Level and Intracranial EEG Correlates of Interoception and Exteroception | 2017 | Empirical | hd-EEG (128-ch) heartbeat-evoked potential + intracranial depth-EEG + heartbeat-detection… | Frontiers in Neuroscience | |
| Attentional Modulation of Primary Interoceptive and Exteroceptive Cortices | 2013 | 27 | Empirical | fMRI block design contrasting interoceptive attention (IA — monitoring the breath) agains… | Cerebral Cortex |
| Awareness of embodiment enhances enjoyment and engages sensorimotor cortices | 2024 | 43 | Empirical | fNIRS, within-subjects, preregistered; mirror-game movement task; Bayesian multilevel mod… | Human Brain Mapping |
| Bodily Maps of Emotion in Major Depressive Disorder | 2021 | 90 | Empirical | Cross-sectional three-group comparison (30 healthy controls, 30 unmedicated MDD, 30 medic… | Cognitive Therapy and Research |
| Bodily maps of emotions | 2014 | 773 | Empirical | Five experiments; topographical self-report (emBODY) with LDA pattern classification, hie… | Proceedings of the National Academy of… |
| Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal | 2020 | 3,954 | Empirical | Cross-sectional online topographical self-report (emBODY); 3954 subjects from 101 countri… | Emotion |
| Brief Communication: Investigating the Relationship Between Psychopathy and Interoceptive Awareness | 2013 | 75 | Empirical | Cross-sectional correlational study in a forensic sample. 75 male offenders with Cluster… | Journal of Personality Disorders |
| Cardiac and Gastric Interoceptive Awareness Have Distinct Neural Substrates | 2023 | 31 | Empirical | block-design fMRI; within-subject interoceptive attention paradigm (heart vs stomach vs v… | eNeuro 10(1):ENEURO.0157-22.2023 |
| Cardiac vagal control and children's adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis | 2013 | Review or meta-analysis | systematic review + random-effects meta-analysis (Fisher's z, Hedges & Vevea 1998) | Biological Psychology 94(1): 22–37 | |
| Childhood adversity and vagal regulation: A systematic review and meta-analysis | 2022 | Review or meta-analysis | systematic review + three-level random-effects meta-analysis (PROSPERO CRD42020198115) | Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews | |
| Cold pressor stress induces opposite effects on cardioceptive accuracy dependent on assessment paradigm | 2013 | 42 | Empirical | Between-subjects experiment; acute laboratory stress (socially-evaluated cold pressor) vs… | Biological Psychology |
| Comprehensive Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Interventions Based on Polyvagal Theory for Psychological Disorders | 2024 | Review or meta-analysis | systematic review + random/fixed-effects meta-analysis (PRISMA; Comprehensive Meta-Analys… | Applied Psychology (Faslname-ye Ravansh… | |
| Computational Models of Interoception and Body Regulation | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Review (theoretical); no new data | Trends in Neurosciences 44(1):63-76 | |
| Contemplating movement: A randomized control trial of yoga training for mental health | 2022 | 58 | Empirical | RCT, two active arms (Interoception-Focused vs Movement-Focused yoga), 10 weeks x 2 sessi… | Mental Health and Physical Activity |
| Decoding the Role of the Insula in Human Cognition: Functional Parcellation and Large-Scale Reverse Inference | 2013 | 17 | Review or meta-analysis | Resting-state fMRI (3T, 72 volumes / 2 min 24 s) connectivity-based parcellation of the r… | Cerebral Cortex |
| Deconstructing the "Two Factors": The Historical Origins of the Schachter–Singer Theory of Emotions | 2017 | Empirical | historical/archival scholarship (letters, unpublished manuscripts, interviews) | Emotion Review | |
| Differentiation of 13 positive emotions by appraisals | 2015 | 90 | Empirical | Within-participant recall study (Smith & Ellsworth 1985 method) across two cultures. 50 S… | Cognition and Emotion |
| Discrepancies in the Definition and Measurement of Human Interoception: A Comprehensive Discussion and Suggested Ways Forward | 2023 | Theory or narrative review | Conceptual review and theoretical proposal (narrative review of definitions and measureme… | Perspectives on Psychological Science | |
| Diseases, Disorders, and Comorbidities of Interoception | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Review (clinical/translational); no new data. Arising from the NIH Blueprint workshop 'Th… | Trends in Neurosciences 44(1):39-51 | |
| Disrupted Dorsal Mid-Insula Activation During Interoception Across Psychiatric Disorders | 2021 | Review or meta-analysis | Coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis (activation likelihood estimation, ALE); prer… | American Journal of Psychiatry | |
| Dynamic functional connectivity signatures of focused attention on the breath in adolescents | 2025 | 72 | Empirical | fMRI; breath-counting task (BCT) vs resting-state; static and dynamic (sliding-window k-m… | Cerebral Cortex |
| Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex | 2000 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review of the Iowa laboratory's own lesion studies (no new data). Reports resul… | Cerebral Cortex | |
| Enhanced cardiac perception is associated with benefits in decision-making | 2009 | 50 | Empirical | Extreme-groups cross-sectional comparison. 25 good vs 25 poor cardiac perceivers (from a… | Psychophysiology |
| Enhanced functional connectivity and increased gray matter volume of insula related to action video game playing | 2015 | 57 | Empirical | Cross-sectional expert/amateur comparison; resting-state fMRI functional connectivity (3T… | Scientific Reports |
| Feelings and the body: The Jamesian perspective on autonomic specificity of emotion | 2010 | Empirical | narrative/historical review | Biological Psychology | |
| Focus on the Breath: Brain Decoding Reveals Internal States of Attention During Meditation | 2020 | 16 | Empirical | fMRI; within-subject multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA); proof-of-principle feasibility… | Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |
| Functional brain biomarkers of self-referential bias in remitted depressed outpatients: a randomized controlled trial | 2026 | 81 | Empirical | Prospective fMRI RCT (same trial as Farb 2022, NCT01178424); remitted MDD randomized to M… | NeuroImage: Clinical |
| Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation | 2000 | 5 | Empirical | fMRI (3T), within-subject meditation vs control block design; concurrent cardiorespirator… | NeuroReport |
| Functional connectivity of the insula in the resting brain | 2011 | 16 | Empirical | Resting-state fMRI (1.5T, 200 volumes); seed-based rsFC from ten insular ROIs plus connec… | NeuroImage |
| Functions of Interoception: From Energy Regulation to Experience of the Self | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Review (functional/comparative); no new data. Part of the Trends in Neurosciences January… | Trends in Neurosciences 44(1):29-38 | |
| Fundamental challenges and likely refutations of the five basic premises of the polyvagal theory | 2023 | Theory or narrative review | critical review / theoretical refutation (no new data) | Biological Psychology | |
| Heart rate variability and self-control—A meta-analysis | 2016 | Review or meta-analysis | systematic review + random-effects meta-analysis with robust variance estimation (RVE) | Biological Psychology 115: 9–26 | |
| Heartbeat detection and the experience of emotions | 2000 | 52 | Empirical | Correlational individual-differences study. Heartbeat discrimination task (Eichler & Katk… | Cognition and Emotion |
| Heartbeat perception in panic disorder: a reanalysis | 2000 | Empirical | Pooled individual-participant reanalysis of seven previously published mental-tracking (S… | Behaviour Research and Therapy | |
| How are bodily states experienced, differentiated and translated into symptoms? A qualitative study | 2023 | 12 | Empirical | qualitative; semi-structured interviews; inductive Thematic Analysis | Cogent Psychology |
| How do you feel — now? The anterior insula and human awareness | 2009 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/review (functional-imaging synthesis + model of awareness) | Nature Reviews Neuroscience | |
| How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body | 2002 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/anatomical review (functional neuroanatomy synthesis) | Nature Reviews Neuroscience | |
| How Does Heartbeat Counting Task Performance Relate to Theoretically-Relevant Mental Health Outcomes? A Meta-Analysis | 2022 | 11,524 | Review or meta-analysis | meta-analysis (pre-registered, random-effects; PROSPERO CRD42019142176) | Collabra: Psychology |
| Internal senses of the vagus nerve | 2022 | Theory or narrative review | narrative review (molecular/genetic and classical physiology of vagal sensory neurons) | Neuron | |
| Interoception and Mental Health: A Roadmap | 2018 | Empirical | consensus review / roadmap (Interoception Summit 2016; not empirical) | Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuros… | |
| Interoception and Panic Disorder | 1993 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review of the author's own research programme (cross-sectional group comparison… | Advances in Behaviour Research and Ther… | |
| Interoception in anxiety and depression | 2010 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review and theoretical model (no new data). Extends the authors' 2006 insular m… | Brain Structure and Function, 214, 451-… | |
| Interoception in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A review | 2016 | Empirical | Systematic literature review (PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE; Jan 1980–Dec 2015) | International Journal of Developmental… | |
| Interoception of breathing and its relationship with anxiety | 2021 | 60 | Empirical | Two-group (low vs moderate trait anxiety) multi-modal study: questionnaires + psychophysi… | Neuron 109(24):4080-4093 |
| Interoception, body awareness and chronic pain: results from a case-control study | 2014 | Empirical | Case-control, cross-sectional; heartbeat counting task with ECG, Body Awareness Questionn… | International Journal of Osteopathic Me… | |
| Interoception, contemplative practice, and health | 2015 | Theory or narrative review | hypothesis and theory (integrative review across neuroscience, clinical, and contemplativ… | Frontiers in Psychology | |
| Interoceptive ability is uncorrelated across respiratory and cardiac axes in a large scale psychophysical study | 2026 | 241 | Empirical | Cross-sectional individual-differences psychophysics; hierarchical Bayesian psychometric… | Communications Psychology (Article in P… |
| Interoceptive Accuracy and Panic | 1999 | 58 | Empirical | Analogue between–within experiment: infrequent panickers vs nonanxious controls, crossed… | Behaviour Research and Therapy |
| Interoceptive awareness declines with age | 2009 | 59 | Empirical | Cross-sectional correlational study of resting cardiac interoception across adulthood. 59… | Psychophysiology |
| Interoceptive inference, emotion, and the embodied self | 2013 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/opinion (predictive-coding framework) | Trends in Cognitive Sciences | |
| Interoceptive Mechanisms and Emotional Processing | 2025 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review | Annual Review of Psychology | |
| Interoceptive rhythms in the brain | 2023 | Theory or narrative review | Review (integrative/theoretical; cardiac, respiratory and gastric rhythms across human an… | Nature Neuroscience | |
| Interventions and Manipulations of Interoception | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review (no new data); Trends in Neurosciences 44(1):52-62, special issue on the… | Trends in Neurosciences | |
| Leave the screen: The influence of everyday behaviors on self-reported interoception | 2023 | 70 | Empirical | 7-day ambulatory assessment (accelerometry-triggered smartphone e-diary), multilevel with… | Biological Psychology |
| Listening to Your Heart: How Interoception Shapes Emotion Experience and Intuitive Decision Making | 2010 | Empirical | Two cross-sectional individual-differences experiments with concurrent psychophysiology,… | Psychological Science | |
| Mind-Wandering as a Scientific Concept: Cutting through the Definitional Haze | 2018 | Theory or narrative review | Theoretical / conceptual — correspondence Letter (Cell Press REVIEWS), published with a p… | Trends in Cognitive Sciences 22(11): 95… | |
| Mindfulness meditation training alters cortical representations of interoceptive attention | 2013 | 36 | Empirical | fMRI, cross-sectional two-group: graduates of an 8-week MBSR course (MT, n=20) vs an untr… | Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosci… |
| Minding One's Emotions: Mindfulness Training Alters the Neural Expression of Sadness | 2010 | 36 | Empirical | fMRI (block design; sad vs. neutral film clips) comparing MBSR completers (n=20) with wai… | Emotion |
| Mood-Linked Responses in Medial Prefrontal Cortex Predict Relapse in Patients with Recurrent Unipolar Depression | 2011 | 32 | Empirical | fMRI (block design; sad vs. neutral film clips) with 18-month prospective relapse follow-… | Biological Psychiatry |
| Multichannel Investigation of Interoception: Sensitivity Is Not a Generalizable Feature | 2018 | Empirical | Cross-sectional, healthy undergraduates, six channels over four sessions: heartbeat count… | Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12:223 | |
| Multidimensional assessment of anticipated and experienced interoceptive states | 2023 | 52 | Empirical | Within-subject psychophysical paradigm validation; two novel cue-and-rate paradigms cross… | Physiology & Behavior |
| Neural Circuits of Interoception | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review (no new data); Trends in Neurosciences 44(1) special issue on the neuros… | Trends in Neurosciences | |
| Neural Systems Connecting Interoceptive Awareness and Feelings | 2007 | 32 | Empirical | Extreme-groups cross-sectional EEG/ERP study with source reconstruction. 16 high vs 16 lo… | Human Brain Mapping |
| Node Detection Using High-Dimensional Fuzzy Parcellation Applied to the Insular Cortex | 2015 | 20 | Empirical | Resting-state fMRI (1.5T, 200 volumes) in 20 healthy adults + an 18-subject replication g… | Neural Plasticity |
| On the relationship between interoceptive awareness, emotional experience, and brain processes | 2005 | 44 | Empirical | Extreme-groups cross-sectional ERP study. 22 good vs 22 poor heartbeat perceivers (select… | Cognitive Brain Research |
| Perceptual awareness and active inference | 2019 | Empirical | Computational modelling — active-inference (partially observed Markov decision process) s… | Neuroscience of Consciousness | |
| Positive Emotion, Appraisal, and the Role of Appraisal Overlap in Positive Emotion Co-Occurrence | 2017 | 395 | Empirical | Ecological Momentary Assessment (experience sampling). 395 National University of Singapo… | Emotion |
| Prevalence, Comorbidity, and Sociodemographic Correlates of Psychiatric Disorders Reported in the All of Us Research Program | 2022 | 329,038 | Empirical | cross-sectional EHR epidemiology (biobank cohort); ICD-10-CM phecode diagnoses | JAMA Psychiatry |
| Propensity to use interoceptive signals: An important individual difference | 2022 | Theory or narrative review | Theoretical commentary (invited response to Suksasilp & Garfinkel 2022) | Biological Psychology | |
| Regulation of the Neural Circuitry of Emotion by Compassion Meditation: Effects of Meditative Expertise | 2008 | 30 | Empirical | fMRI (block + event-related), 15 expert vs. 15 novice meditators generating a loving-kind… | PLoS ONE |
| Reliability and validity of brain-gastric phase synchronization | 2023 | 43 | Empirical | Concurrent electrogastrography + resting-state fMRI + pulse oximetry; repeated runs (84 r… | Human Brain Mapping |
| respyra: A General-Purpose Respiratory Tracking Toolbox for Interoception Research | 2026 | 1 | Empirical | Software/methods paper plus single-participant validation study (N = 1, the author; 48 tr… | Preprint (PsyArXiv) |
| Rethinking the Emotional Brain | 2012 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical Perspective (conceptual reframing; no new data) | Neuron | |
| Sensory Over-responsivity: A Feature of Childhood Psychiatric Illness Associated With Altered Functional Connectivity of Sensory Networks | 2023 | Empirical | Longitudinal community cohort (ABCD); linear mixed-effects models; resting-state fMRI fun… | Biological Psychiatry | |
| Social Antecedents to the Development of Interoception: Attachment Related Processes Are Associated With Interoception | 2019 | Empirical | Two cross-sectional secondary analyses of existing datasets — Study 1: self-report questi… | Frontiers in Psychology | |
| Somatic experiencing: using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy | 2015 | Empirical | Hypothesis and Theory article; illustrative composite case study (no empirical data, no m… | Frontiers in Psychology | |
| Somatotopic organisation of the human insula to painful heat studied with high resolution functional imaging | 2005 | 14 | Empirical | fMRI (3T high-resolution EPI; within-subject thermal pain to face/hand/foot) | NeuroImage |
| Static and treatment-responsive brain biomarkers of depression relapse vulnerability following prophylactic psychotherapy: Evidence from a randomized control trial | 2022 | 85 | Empirical | Prospective fMRI RCT; remitted MDD randomized to MBCT (n=48) or Well-Being Cognitive Ther… | NeuroImage: Clinical |
| Testing the independence of self-reported interoceptive accuracy and attention | 2020 | Empirical | Six-study scale development and validation: PCA (n=451), 30-day test–retest against ICQ a… | Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psych… | |
| The Body in the Mind: On the Relationship Between Interoception and Embodiment | 2012 | Theory or narrative review | Theoretical review / overview | Topics in Cognitive Science | |
| The Body Keeps the Score: Memory and the Evolving Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress | 1994 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review / theoretical synthesis (no new data; integrates animal models, neuroend… | Harvard Review of Psychiatry | |
| The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review | 2012 | Review or meta-analysis | coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis (density, chi-square, and logistic-regression… | Behavioral and Brain Sciences | |
| The Emerging Science of Interoception: Sensing, Integrating, Interpreting, and Regulating Signals within the Self | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review and proposed research framework (no new data); Trends in Neurosciences 4… | Trends in Neurosciences | |
| The heart rate discrimination task: A psychophysical method to estimate the accuracy and precision of interoceptive beliefs | 2022 | Empirical | Methods paper with test-retest: heart rate discrimination task (5 s heart listening with… | Biological Psychology, 168, 108239 | |
| The Insula and Evaluative Processes | 2010 | 28 | Empirical | lesion / neuropsychological case series (three groups: insula, amygdala, control lesions) | Psychological Science |
| The Insula Mediates Access to Awareness of Visual Stimuli Presented Synchronously to the Heartbeat | 2016 | Empirical | 9-experiment series: continuous flash suppression + visual crowding psychophysics, and hi… | The Journal of Neuroscience | |
| The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) | 2012 | Empirical | Mixed-methods scale development: literature review, focus groups with teachers and patien… | PLoS ONE, 7(11), e48230 | |
| The neurobiology of interoception in health and disease | 2018 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review (Special Issue: Health Neuroscience) | Annals of the New York Academy of Scien… | |
| The neuropsychological impact of insular cortex lesions | 2010 | Theory or narrative review | Narrative review of the human insula-lesion literature (case reports, case series, lesion… | Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and… | |
| The Relationship Between Interoception and Metacognition: A Pilot Study | 2016 | 24 | Empirical | Cross-sectional pilot, healthy students. Heartbeat counting (Schandry; 10 trials, 24-64 s… | Journal of Psychophysiology, 30(2), 76-… |
| The Role of Interoceptive Sensibility and Emotional Conceptualization for the Experience of Emotions | 2021 | 131 | Empirical | Two-session online individual-differences study; 8 questionnaires + IAPS emotion-differen… | Frontiers in Psychology |
| The sense of should: A biologically-based framework for modeling social pressure | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Theoretical framework / formal model (target article with open peer commentary) | Physics of Life Reviews | |
| The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex | 1996 | Theory or narrative review | Single-author theoretical statement with summarized empirical support, published in a Roy… | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal… | |
| The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation | 2006 | Theory or narrative review | critical review (no new data). Systematically evaluates the somatic marker hypothesis in… | Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews… | |
| The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision | 2005 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical review and neural model (no new data collected; synthesizes ~15 years of Iowa… | Games and Economic Behavior | |
| The theory of constructed emotion: an active inference account of interoception and categorization | 2017 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/review (predictive coding and active inference; deductive argument from corti… | Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosci… | |
| The vagal paradox: A polyvagal solution | 2023 | Theory or narrative review | theoretical/review (no new data) | Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology | |
| Three Systems of Insular Functional Connectivity Identified with Cluster Analysis | 2011 | 30 | Empirical | Resting-state fMRI (3T, 200 volumes / 6 min 40 s) connectivity-based parcellation of the… | Cerebral Cortex |
| Uncovering the embodied dimension of the wandering mind | 2026 | 536 | Empirical | Large-scale individual-differences resting-state fMRI (14 min) with retrospective multidi… | Proceedings of the National Academy of… |
| What Makes a Word a Good Representative of the Category of 'Emotion'? The Role of Feelings and Interoception | 2024 | 651 | Empirical | Normative rating study; 651 native Spanish speakers rated 1,286 candidate emotion words o… | Emotion |
| When You Don't Feel Right Inside: Homeostatic Dysregulation and the Mid-Insular Cortex in Psychiatric Disorders | 2021 | Theory or narrative review | Editorial / invited commentary (on Nord, Lawson & Dalgleish 2021) | American Journal of Psychiatry | |
| Working Smarter, Not Harder: The Effects of a Digital Therapeutic on Exercise Performance in an Activated RCT | 2026 | 70 | Empirical | Randomized controlled trial (3-week smartphone intervention), two active arms ('activated… | Mindfulness |
